Christianity spread throughout Europe and the Mediterranean area during the Middle Ages. The exact term "Holy Roman Empire" was not used until the 13th century, before which the empire was referred to variously as universum regnum ("the whole kingdom", as opposed to the regional kingdoms), imperium christianum ("Christian empire"), or Romanum imperium ("Roman empire"),[18] but the Emperor's legitimacy always rested on the concept of translatio imperii,[d] that he held supreme power inherited from the ancient emperors of Rome. When one turns from the preconditions to the causes of the events of 800 and from the realm of ideas to that of political facts, one enters another world. [11][50]:109 The king found himself with almost no political support and was forced to make the famous Walk to Canossa in 1077,[50]:122–24 by which he achieved a lifting of the excommunication at the price of humiliation. The states that composed the Empire, while enjoying a unique form of territo
Calvinism was now allowed, but Anabaptists, Arminians and other Protestant communities would still lack any support and continue to be persecuted well until the end of the Empire. [46]:214–15 In 955, Otto won a decisive victory over the Magyars in the Battle of Lechfeld.
The Habsburg emperors themselves used Regensburg in the same way. Whether and to what degree he had to be German was disputed among the Electors, contemporary experts in constitutional law, and the public.
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Those two constituted the only officially recognized Protestant denominations, while various other Protestant confessions such as Anabaptism, Arminianism, etc. This may perhaps be because it didn’t have much power as a single, authoritative domain. ", The only prince allowed to call himself "king" of a territory in the Empire was the. the territory of today's Poland and Czech Republic) became German-speaking. [21] The form "Holy Roman Empire" is attested from 1254 onward. The Peace of Westphalia in 1648, which ended the Thirty Years' War, gave the territories almost complete independence. Furthermore, in 1653 the Electoral Capitulation included strict rules on the process by which the Emperor could create new states of the Empire.
At this time, many local dukes saw it as a chance to oppose the hegemony of Emperor Charles V. The empire then became fatally divided along religious lines, with the north, the east, and many of the major cities – Strasbourg, Frankfurt, and Nuremberg – becoming Protestant while the southern and western regions largely remained Catholic. Click on the boxes in the map key at upper right to see the expansion of Christianity and Islam and the separation between Western and Eastern Christianity in 1054. An edict of Charles IV, emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, issued in 1356 and in force until the extinction of the empire in 1806, in which the selection of the emperor was entrusted to seven Electors. His power was severely restricted by the various local leaders. The ecumenical councils of the 5th to 8th centuries were convoked by the Eastern Roman Emperors. From then on, the link between the Popes and Emperors was largely broken.
Furthermore, the right to vote became attached to a land, rather than to a person or family (of course, land was inheritable within families). In 1212, King Ottokar I (bearing the title "king" since 1198) extracted a Golden Bull of Sicily (a formal edict) from the emperor Frederick II, confirming the royal title for Ottokar and his descendants and the Duchy of Bohemia was raised to a kingdom. For a more complete history of the empire, see Holy Roman Empire. [77], The Habsburg royal family had its own diplomats to represent its interests. The only Free Imperial Cities still existing as states within Germany are Hamburg and Bremen. Not all imperial territories were included within the imperial circles, even after 1512; the Lands of the Bohemian Crown were excluded, as were Switzerland, the imperial fiefs in northern Italy, the lands of the Imperial Knights, and certain other small territories like the Lordship of Jever.
According to Regino of Prüm, the parts of the realm "spewed forth kinglets", and each part elected a kinglet "from its own bowels". Still, Otto II formed marital ties with the east when he married the Byzantine princess Theophanu. [33] In 751, Martel's son Pepin became King of the Franks, and later gained the sanction of the Pope. Another point of contention was the crusade, which Frederick had promised but repeatedly postponed.
Höckmann, Thomas (2006). There were also some areas ruled directly by the Emperor.
Despite his imperial claims, Frederick's rule was a major turning point towards the disintegration of central rule in the Empire. The history of the empire is also not to be confused or identified with the history of its constituent kingdoms, Germany and Italy, though clearly they are interrelated. Höckmann, Thomas (2006). Traditional historiography assumes a continuity between the Carolingian Empire and the Holy Roman Empire, while a modern convention takes the coronation of Otto I in 962 as the starting point of the Holy Roman Empire (although the term Sacrum Imperium Romanum was not in use before the 13th century).
"Thomas's Glassware Tour to Central Europe: Old Glasses from Old Europe" in, Hilkens, Bob (2000).
Translation of the grant of privileges to merchants in 1229: Istvan Szepesi, "Reflecting the Nation: The Historiography of Hanseatic Institutions. Most rulers maintained one or a number of favourites Imperial palace sites, where they would advance development and spent most of their time: Charlemagne (Aachen from 794), Frederick II (Palermo 1220–1254), Wittelsbacher (Munich 1328–1347 and 1744–1745), Habsburger (Prague 1355–1437 and 1576–1611) and (Vienna 1438–1576, 1611–1740 and 1745–1806).
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